Expense of tourist spending for travel in bkk

Penetration is acquire new household or customer although can divided by to term, category and brand. Mix is to trade up to premium products. Last requirements to increase of share of requirements and growth category requirements. Brand Growth Strategies More Stuff More People More Money More Often Expansion Penetration MIX Requirement Expand to new domain Acquire new outside current householder or category customer -Category -Brand Trade up to premium product -Increase share of requirements – Expansion is to attract new user of brand, not include line extension or variants of current products.Using when the category growth maturing, unmet needs, and benefits transferable to another category. – Penetration can include line extension or variant of current product can separate by two parts. First category penetration are more people using category; using when low of category development, gain frost mover advantage, and opportunity to motivate to meet the needs also new ch annels opportunity. Second brand penetration are more people using brand at least one in category; using when developed category or rejected brand out of date, opportunity or adoption or point of entry. Mix can include line extension or variant of current product using when brand being dominant, opportunity for current consumer spend more money to purchases. – Requirement can include line extension or variant of current product can separate by two part. First category requirement for developing new user, make more chance for brand to meet other needs. Second share of requirement(SORE) to stealing current chance from direct competitor. Integrate Marketing Planning (IMP)IMP is process helps you to produce a commercial program in more efficient way of managing marketing communication activities that center around an idea, which create behavior changing to meet commercial objective How to apply to my group project? Our group project is Sky wife smart pen so libraries smart pen wh ich are innovative device include function that support you to record audio transfer information via wife access to your smart phone or laptop, also can send your writing information too.As guest speaker say our group project will apply libraries pen â€Å"to sell† we can expand more stuff not specific with pen to attract interest of consumer, selling product for more people to explain overall of our products functional and usage for people who don't know by doing marketing, more money absolutely all of business need more money so company can upgrade quality of products and increasing price when products quality meet demand of consumer, more often by integrate new buyer to known exactly value of product of company and promote good appearance of product before competitor.

The Relationship Between Entrepreneurship

In order to completely understand the relation, it is Important to define what Is meant by each of the terms before Identifying any links between them. Joseph Schumacher defined entrepreneurship as â€Å"whatever the type, everyone is entrepreneur only when he actually carries out a new combination and loses that character as soon as he has built up his business, when he settles to running it as other people run their 1934, p. 78) I agree with most of this definition as this basically means that a person is only an entrepreneur when something new Is created.After this point, they are not considered entrepreneurs as whatever they have created Is no longer new. Schumacher also said that Innovation Is the creation of a new product, new method of production, new markets or new ways of directing resources. It is also important to distinguish between incremental and radical Innovation. Incremental innovation refers to a small change whereas radical change means a revolutionary change, For example, the Invention of the first mobile phone was a radical innovation. The release of Apple's latest phone is an incremental innovation.Firstly, I will examine the correlation between Just entrepreneurship and innovation. In my opinion, it is impossible to be an entrepreneur without being innovative. Summerset's definition supports this belief. The person needs to create something incrementally or radically new in order to be an entrepreneur. A good example of this would be Steve Jobs, one of the founders of Apple. His Innovation towards portable music was radical In the sense that his product was compact. However, since then, he has made more products such as phones and computers.Schumacher also argued that innovation allows firms to generate abnormal profits which are required as they encourage research and development. However, I believe that this research and development often leads to incremental change rather than radical change. This can be seen by looking at Apple as we ll. Apple constantly makes incremental changes to FIFO However, incremental change is essential for economic development. Economic development is defined as the rise in the general standards of living and quality of life. It is measured by the Human Developmental Index (HID).The HID is a â€Å"way of measuring development by combining indicators of life expectancy, educational attainment and income† (UNDO, 2011). Economic development can only be achieved if there is economic growth. Economic growth is the rise in a nation's real gross domestic product (GAP). Considering that â€Å"Development requires the removal of major sources of unfounded: poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or overcapacity of oppressive states. (Mammary Seen, 1999, p. 3), I firmly believe that economic growth can lead to economic development. Entrepreneurship and innovation fuels economic gr owth as it makes demand rise. An entrepreneur innovates and creates something to meet a pre-existing yet unfulfilled demand. As a result, people buy that product, allowing the entrepreneur to earn profits. These profits can be invested back into the business. The process then starts again and causes the economy to grow. A growing economy results in increasing expenditure.This means that unemployment falls and incomes rise. This means that consumption of necessity goods increases. The provision and consumption of services such as health care and education can also increase. Governments can also generate more revenue from tax as incomes and expenditure rises. This means the provision of public goods such as clean drinking water, sanitation and law and order increases. A rise in the supply of public goods causes a reduction in inequality gap and improves income distribution.All of these constitute to economic development as the standard of living has now been improved and this can be p roven by calculating the values for the HID indicators. Furthermore, economic growth is also an incentive for more innovation as it signals to the potential entrepreneurs that the economic conditions are suitable for making profits. It is due to all these conditions that I believe that the ‘uninformed' mentioned in Ken's definition are removed and aptly addressed during a period of economic growth, thus, resulting in economic development.An example, from Kenya, of the process above supports my argument. According to an article published by The Guardian, a Kenya telecommunications company, Safari, started providing a mobile banking service called ‘M-Peas' in 2003. This service permitted its users to store money on their phones and pay for items or transfer money via SMS. This provided people with an alternative source of banking that was better than the traditional method because it was portable and did not impose heavy charges for transactions. As a result, demand for mo bile phones went up.A study done by the London Business School showed that for every 10 extra mobile phones per 100 people, GAP in a developing nation went up by 0. 5%. Mobile phones also aided in economic development because they â€Å"can also be used to spread vital information about farming and healthcare to isolated rural areas send symptoms of a disease to a doctor via text and receive a diagnosis. Farmers could find the market price of the crops to ensure that they are not cheated. Mobile banking is not a radical innovation however; incremental change can be more beneficial for less developed countries.This service helps improve the quality of life for people in remote, rural areas that are hard to get to due to poor infrastructure. Although, entrepreneurship and innovation can cause economic growth, it isn't the only way. Economic growth can also be found in situations from which entrepreneurship is completely absent. A prime example of this would be the Russia during the s ass. During this time, Russia was a centrally planned economy. By definition this means that all decisions were made by the state rather than individuals. â€Å"The decade of sass was thus the â€Å"golden period† of Soviet economic Roth.The patterns of Soviet growth of the sass in terms of growth accounting were very similar to the Japanese growth of the sass-ass and to Korean and Taiwanese growth in the 1960-ass – fast increases in labor productivity counterweighted the decline in capital productivity' (Vladimir Pop, 2010) These nations saw an increase in their GAP even during a lack of entrepreneurship due to increased labor productivity. However, the rise in GAP only lasted a decade. As it can be inferred by inspecting the current economic conditions in the former Soviet states, the growth was not sustainable.Sustainability looks at the level of self-sufficiency a product or notion has. It is related to entrepreneurship and innovation in the sense that if a produc t, idea or procedure is not sustainable, the likelihood of its existence is low. It's obvious to me that an entrepreneur is less likely to follow through with an idea that cannot continuously generate profits. Conversely, the concept of sustainable development has to be discussed while trying to understand the relationship between economic development and sustainability.Sustainable development is defined as â€Å"development that meets the needs of the resent without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. † (NUANCED, 1987)This means that entrepreneurs have to be innovative in a manner that satisfies the current demand but does not harm the future generation's capacity to innovate and satisfy their demands. Sustainable entrepreneurship can help achieve economic development. For example, the invention of the catalytic converter by Eugene Hydro was a radical innovation that was meant to reduce the air pollution created by exhausts from chimneys a nd automobiles.This kind of radical innovation benefits the developed nations more as they have a higher rate of institution and more factories and automobiles that create emissions. In this case, sustainable entrepreneurship increases economic development because impact on health, one of the factors measured by the HID, is reduced. In conclusion, the relationship between entrepreneurship, innovation and economic development is a bilateral one. I think it is impossible to be an entrepreneur without causes economic growth which is required for economic development.However, economic growth does not equate to economic development, as shown by the report on Soviet growth rates. Even though there was economic growth, there was a very insignificant, if any, rise in the standards of living. For me, this highlights the importance of entrepreneurship in achieving economic development. Even though I think radical innovation is a better reflection of entrepreneurship, I think that incremental innovation is of greater importance for the purposes of promoting economic development in less developed countries.The incremental innovations done by entrepreneurs in less developed nations, such as Safari in Kenya, are vital for economic development due to the nature of the infrastructure in these countries. Radical innovations such as the creation of the catalytic converter and whiney scrubbers that reduce emissions are significant for improving the standards of living in developed nations due to the opulence and levels of consumption. Sustainability and sustainable development play a noteworthy role in this relationship.

Language Learning & Teaching

‘Mother tongue’, ‘first language’, or ‘L1’ is the language that the child usually learns first by the process of interacting with the parents, family members and the society.   This language is usually not acquired by the process of formal education.   It is passed on from one generation to another by the process of interaction and communication.   It is important to know that the first language of the individual need not always be the dominant language.   For example, if the family relocates from one place to another, then there would automatically be a shift in the dominant language of the child, as the language for social communication would also change.   Suppose a child has very good skills at learning the first language, automatically the skills for learning the second language would be good, as it suggests various cognitive functions required for learning the language (such as thinking, memory, etc).   On the other hand, if th e child develops poor skills at learning the first language, automatically he/she would find it difficult to learn the second language and even others (Clark, 2000).‘Second language’ or ‘L2’ is a language that is different from the first language and is usually acquired by the process of formal education in school.   Usually, the second language is a language other than the first language or the mother tongue.   As in several parts of the world, a greater amount of importance is given to English, which has been the basis for international communication. A lot of research is being conducted to determine the manner in which the second language could be acquired, learnt and retained.   In some parts of the world, the second language is beginning to dominate the first language.   This is because of the greater amount of use of the second language in international communication, corporate sector and as a medium of instruction.   The term second languag e was given as it initially suggested the level of comprehension, understanding and the fluency of an individual with that particular language in comparison with the first language (Clark, 2000 & Ellis, 1994).  Hylenstam (1992) conducted a lot of research to determine the manner in which the second language and the first language skills were acquired and retained.  He found that after the age of 7 years, the child often found it difficult to learn a second language and obtain the skills required as good as that of the first language.   The individual frequently demonstrated a lot of grammatical errors whilst using the second language, after it was acquired following the age of 7 years (Clark, 2000).   However, research conducted by Hylenstam and Abrahamsson (2003) also found that that there was no exact cut-off period at which an individual would find it difficult to learn the second language, and term it as good as the first language.   Even during adulthood, the second l anguage skills could be acquired as good as before the age of 7 provided the individual made an effort and was motivated to learn and acquire the second language (Clark, 2000).Usually, in each and every nation of the world, the child would be learning two languages.   The United States is one of the few nations in which the children would be usually learning one language that is English.   According to Cummins, learning a second language did not affect the development of the child.   However, social interactions helped in development.   Studies based on cognitive functioning and learning abilities have demonstrated that during the phase of mental growth and development, there was no negative effect if the child learnt one language or two.   Children were able to learn a second language easily and utilise it in the same manner as the first language for communication, questioning, thinking and socialising.   All the knowledge gained from the first language could easily be transferred and utilised in the second language by the child (Clark, 2000 & Ellis, 1994).Children cannot learn a second language within a definite period of time.   Strong evidence is currently not available to suggest that children can learn a second language within a short period of time.   Evidence is also currently not available to demonstrate that children would be learning a second language faster than the adults (Clark, 2000 & Ellis, 1994).During the process of learning a second language, the child may experience several problems including improper pronunciation, not able to use grammar appropriately or poor comprehending capability.   It is important to note that several factors such as environmental, learning facilities, educational, ability to socialise, age, sex, motivation, personality type etc, play an important role in the second language development of the child.   It is for this reason that some children learn second language faster, whilst others take a long er time (Clark, 2000 & Ellis, 1994).One of the important factors that need to be considered for acquiring a second language is the age of learning.   This plays an important role compared to several other factors including motivation, cultural circumstances, opportunities etc.   The child should also get a positive response from others whilst learning the second language.   In the native home, some children may find it difficult to learn a second language.   Children whilst learning the first and the second language usually have similar attitudes.   In learning the first language, the child would usually do so at a younger age, and hence the complications and the fear of making mistakes are lesser.   The second language learning age is usually higher than the first language, and hence the complications and the fear of making mistakes are usually present.   Children tend to use the native pattern of pronouncing words (Clark, 2000 & Ellis, 1994).In 1995, Collier was able to demonstrate that even adolescents and adults had some amount of competence in learning a second language.   Children do have the cognitive competence of learning languages and this would enable them to learn and retain a language better than an adult.   A few researchers have contradicting views about the second language learning.   They feel that once a second language is learnt within a very short period of time and at a very young age, then the skills initially acquired of the first language is lost (Bialystok & Hakuta, 1994).   Some of these researchers hence feel that the second language should not be introduced at a very young age to children and hence both the first and the second language need to be imparted (McLaughlin, 1973).Once the first or the second language is learnt, the outcome is usually different.   For example, once the first language is learnt, due to the interactions between the society, parents and family, the fluency and the comprehension improv es compared to the second language.   It may be equally difficult for learning either the first language or the second language, but the role of variables is even greater for the second language (Clark, 2000 & Ellis, 1994).For learning the first and the second language, it is very important that an environment conducive for learning exists.   Communication between the parents, family, friends and society is very important.   The cognitive ability can be developed and the language skills could be improved through positive interactions in the language.   The child should be allowed to express themselves freely with the parents.   The language learning process should be enabled through positive interactions between the parents and the child.   The existent language base and real-life situations play an important role.   The child should be able to use the language at the school, home or in social settings.   The child should be able to use and develop both the languages equally.   For example, some children may not be able to use the second language at home due to inability of the family members to understand it.Besides, some children may also find it difficult to use the first language in school, as they may have another language as a medium of instruction.   This may hamper the learning process.   It is important that the child uses the languages in many instances as possible so as to develop the skill and the knowledge required.   Whilst learning the first and the second language, formal education would only be playing a passive role.   The main ingredient for the success at developing skill in a new language is positive interactions and usage of that language (Clark, 2000 & Ellis, 1994).Some children may find learning a second language a very tedious task.   Especially those children, who have problems in learning the first language, often develop similar problems in learning the second language.   For learning the language, such problems frequently develop as it is very important that the child develops strong relationships with the parents so that such problems can overcome patiently and gradually.   The use of the second language at home should in no manner affect the cognitive development and the learning process.New experiences with the second language and the use of new ideas would definitely help in improving the cognitive processes.   It is frequently seen that once the cognitive development has occurred with the first language, the same skills could be utilized in attaining the skills required for the second language.   Frequently, children who have developed tremendous skills with the first language (due to the cognitive advancement) may find it very easy to learn a second language.   Studies have even demonstrated that children able to excel in the first language may do equally well with the second language (Clark, 2000 & Ellis, 1994).Reading is another area in which the child should deve lop a habit in order to gain competence of the second language.   It helps to improve comprehension, understanding, thinking, flow of ideas, creative expressions, memory etc.   Usually, the first language is learnt through day-to-day communication and the second language is learnt through reading.   However, both communication and constant reading are required to develop skills in learning the language.Thus it can be said that development of the first language would in fact supplement the learning of the second language.   Positive interactions with family, parents, friends and society would help in developing skills with the second language.   Besides, reading would also aid in language development.   The manner in which the first and the second language is learnt is much similar to one another.   It need not always be that the first language dominates the second language.   The dominating language usually depends on the culture the child is exposed to.   In child ren below the age of 7 years, the process of learning the second language is much easier. In adults and adolescents, motivation plays a very important role in second language acquisition.References:Clark, B.A. (2000), First- and Second-Language Acquisition in Early Childhood. [Online], Available: http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/pubs/katzsym/clark-b.html, [Accessed: 2007, December 31].Ellis (1994). Differences between L1 and L2 acquisition. [Online], Available: http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/SLA/L1%20and%20L2.htm, [Accessed: 2007, December 31].Klein, W., & Jankowski, B. (1986), Second Language Acquisition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.NWREL (2003). Overview of Second Language Acquisition Theory. [Online], Available: http://www.nwrel.org/request/2003may/overview.html, [Accessed: 2007, December 31].

Read an article in an art magazine then write the summary Essay - 1

Read an article in an art magazine then write the summary - Essay Example However, one of the art directors was not amused with some of the artworks (Akinsha & Alisa 1). The depiction of President Viktor Yanukovych as an avenger and the overall reflection of the vicious peasant uprising of the 18th century were not welcome amongst conservatives in the Ukrainian art world. Another artist corrected foresaw the impending unrest before it happened. Tsagolov’s The Ghost of Revolution explored the struggles between protesters and police while supported by Mykola Ridnyi. Ridnyi displayed police boots roughly sculpted at the PinchkArtCenter and joined other painters in Maidan or Independence Square for street protest. Other anarchist-artists such as Mann and Ivan used rough walls to draw the image of a famous Ukrainian anarchist leader called Nestor Makhno to inspire protests to continue the demonstrations. However, other artists played safe such as Khomenko of the R.E.P group that drew conventional pencil portraits before giving them away. Performances such as the one titled The Kingdom of Darkness is Surrendered that used mirrors compelled police to view at their own reflections (Akinsha & Alisa

Communication, Conflict and Decision-Making Essay

Communication, Conflict and Decision-Making - Essay Example At this juncture, we will acknowledge that communication meets some barriers, which hinders effective delivery of information to the intended parties. Unsuccessful communication results in conflict of opinions or ideas among the involved parties. In communication, conflict results when there is a dissonance or incompatibility of ideologies and beliefs held by the parties involved. Although conflict may results in both negative and positive consequences, this social dissonance may enhance maturity of social skills among the involved individuals. Conflict management entails employment of mechanisms that facilitate development of positive consequences from a social disagreement. Effective conflict management exercises enhance learning among members of a society on how to handle incompatible opinions in future. Conflict management incorporates the aspect of decision making in solving an underlying problem. A conflict ends after one or both parties involved select the best course of actio n from the available alternative courses of action (James, 2009). From a theoretical perspective, conflicts form an inherent element in social relationship. Within any given social setting, people subscribe to different beliefs and values in life. Therefore, conflicts arise in any society comprising of members with varied philosophical patterns (Erich, 2011). Courtesy of cultural norms, individuals possess natural mechanisms meant to facilitate conflict resolution processes whenever a conflict arises. Effective communication forms the basis of conflict resolution mechanisms. It is through a health conveyance of information between two parties that a conflict reaches a positive end (Stacks & Michael, 2008). I applied some theoretical elements of conflict resolution in past social experiences unknowingly. As a student, I usually fall into conflict situations with friends and

Discussion in recession Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Discussion in recession - Coursework Example This is what recession basically is but it is a kind of chain reaction which affects everybody involved directly or indirectly. However, recession is the decreasing of currency in terms of value and buying power. Now let us see how recession can damage big and small businesses (Argument). When recession strikes, the owner of the business or the employer tends not to hire new employees to cut down the cost and increase the chances of keep earning some profit. In some cases the employers may stop hiring the employees at all (Kornai, 1994). The manufacturer will not try to do any improvements regarding buying new equipment and launching new products. By not taking these steps which shows downward progress of the company and the share price of that company in the stock market also falls (Evidence). When a large business is forced to reduce its cost on things like promoting new products, launching marketing campaigns and it directly reduces the business opportunities of the small business es like advertisers, marketing firms and owners of the printing presses. Hence, one decision of a businessman to keep running his business swallows the revenue generation chances of the smaller businesses. This is where recession becomes really devastating and catastrophic for both small and large businesses.. In this article, I believe that it has been seen that the recession is no good thing for business world and also for the employees and general public as their lifestyle is forced to change accordingly. Nonetheless, it supports and proves the point of view of those people and economists who believe that recession is harmful for the businesses. But some people are of the opinion that recession is not that harmful to the world. What makes them think like that is to be found in the next article which is written by Laurie Bassi and her coauthor. They on the contrary has presented a very opposite picture of recession.

Strategic management and other aspects of HRM Research Paper

Strategic management and other aspects of HRM - Research Paper Example Traditionally, personnel management took the functions of HRM. When functions and responsibilities multiplied to the fore due to various organizational and environmental factors, changes have to be incorporated in the organization. Human Resource Management has taken over the functions of Personnel Management. These functions range from recruitment to training to managing the personnel and their functions in an organization. In the UK, HRM emerged in the late 1980s, giving way to personnel management, during the time when stress on the integration of HR policies was needed. The people are the organization’s greatest asset, and human resource is to manage or take care of this special asset. If the people are working well in the organization, it means HRM is doing its job of looking over the employees. Human resource management is defined as â€Å"a strategic and coherent approach to the management of an organization’s most valued assets – the people working there who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of its objectives† (Armstrong, 2006, p. 3). But Storey (1989) believes that HRM can be regarded as a ‘set of interrelated policies with an ideological and philosophical underpinning’. Storey suggests these following aspects that constitute the meaningful version of HRM: it is ‘a particular constellation of beliefs and assumptions; a strategic thrust informing decisions about people management; the central involvement of line managers; and a reliance on a set of ‘levers’ to shape the employment relationship’.

Is Hamlet insane or merely pretending insanity Why Essay

Is Hamlet insane or merely pretending insanity Why - Essay Example The ambience is eerie and unnerving. The appearance of the ghost makes it even more mysterious and intense. In such a context it is difficult to maintain composure and remain sane and more so for a prince. A question about Hamlet’s insanity may be put in the mind of the audience due to the appearance of the ghost and Hamlet’s speaking to it. But it is offset by the earlier appearance of the same ghost in Elsinore, after the stroke of twelve, in front of Horatio, Bernardo and Marcellus and vanishing by the sound of the morning cock. Thus Hamlet is not uniquely mad to have witnessed the visitations of the ghost of his father. However as the play progresses, we come to know clearly that Hamlet is not mad. He has planned to feign madness in order to convince his enemy that he is unaware of the truth about his father’s foul murder by his uncle. In the beginning Hamlet is distressed and says: â€Å"O God! O God! How weary, stale and unprofitable seem to me all the use s of the worlds.† He seems to be undergoing tremendous depression. In Elizabethan age, hallucinations were often associated with acute depression. Thus, in the beginning, it might seem that out protagonist is going through a period of deep depression of un-proportionate amount and this justifies the visions of the ghost. This type of thought was prevalent in the Elizabethan era. The unexpected death of his father and the almost instant re-marriage of his mother to his uncle were causes good enough to cause mental and emotional instability and unhinge his mind. Instead we see that despite his deep grief, he immediately transforms into his own, normal, commanding self when the players enter: â€Å"You are welcome, masters; welcome, all. I am glad to see thee well.† Hamlet in fact can be viewed to possess an extremely logical and cunning mind. He himself is not sure about the truthfulness of the ghost’s pronouncements. To ensure that it is not a trap laid by an evil spirit, he plans to write a play about the truth that he believes about his father’s death and plans to play it in front of the King and the Queen. He also warns his close friend Horatio and asks him not to be alarmed at his â€Å"antic disposition†. He sets the trap and during the play he sets his eyes on his uncle to follow his reactions as the play unfolds. He hurriedly leaves. Hamlet is convinced and starts planning his next steps. Hamlet plays the role of his contrived madness very convincingly. Ophelia thinks that he has been â€Å"loosed out of hell. To speak of horrors he comes before me.† Polonius is also convinced that Hamlet is madly in love with Ophelia: â€Å"He knew me not at first; he said I was a fishmonger; he is far gone, far gone†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Hamlet is so clever that he even convinces his mother Queen Gertrude: â€Å"Alas how is’t with you†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The queen’s suspicion is even more aggravated when Hamlet again experienc es his father’s visitations in front of his mother. He also speaks to it and this convinces the queen that his son is â€Å"mad as the sea and wind†. In fact Hamlet’s manifestations of madness changes according to the persons he is which. He feigns madness in front of Polonius, Claudius, Gertrude, Ophelia, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. But in front of Horatio, Bernardo, Francisco and the Actors in the play, he acts normally. However Polonius says that: â€Å"actions although strange, do not appear to stem from madness. Polonius

The Federal Government's Power through Application of the Commerce Research Paper

The Federal Government's Power through Application of the Commerce Clause - Research Paper Example The constitution however, does not provide an outright explanation for the term commerce. What then can be said to constitute commerce? Over the years commerce has been defined to mean the buying and selling of goods across states, this is known as interstate commerce and within states, which is known as intrastate commerce (Barnett, 2001). In Carter vs. Carter Coal Company1, the Supreme Court defined commerce as intercourse with the main reason of trade. Acts that fall within the concept of commerce are those acts that have a substantial effect to the exchange of goods within and across states. As seen under the commerce clause the federal government has the power to regulate commerce. What does it mean to regulate commerce? Regulating commerce according to Chief Justice Marshall regarding the case of Gibbons .v. Ogden2 means having the power to control the manner in which commerce is to be governed. Chief Justice Melville Fuller also gave a similar definition by stating regulation of commerce to mean the authority to prescribe the set of rules outlining the way the governing of commerce should take place. The federal government is formed out of a union between states and the sovereign power and this power is divided is therefore split between the national government and the various states (Bork & Troy, 2002). Discussion The original need for the commerce clause was mainly to discourage rivalry between those states that had a commercial advantage and those that did not have a commercial advantage. This difference in commercial advantage of states was brought due to the proximity to the harbor. Those states that were close to the harbor had a commercial advantage than those that were not. The commerce clause was initially meant to ensure that United States of America was a place where trade could take place freely without states having to bring up barriers against each other (Forte, 2011) therefore giving rise to rivalry. Originally, the term to regulate was in terpreted as making something regular. This clause was intended to make all the states regular by promoting activities that would encourage free trade across and within states and also to oversee any interference in interstate commerce. Federal power was intended to operate activities that fell within the scope of commerce but the courts kept quiet even when the federal government continued to see the general extension of the commerce clause. A good example is the case of Kidd vs. Pearson3 the court recognized the broad powers of the congress under the commerce clause over the sale of good in interstate commerce. The commerce clause was dormant over the years until the courts started making decisions that differentiated commerce and production (Bork & Troy, 2002) as seen in the case of Carter vs. Carter Coal Company4 the Supreme Court defined commerce as the intercourse with the main purpose of trade. The turning point of courts decisions came in with the landmark case of US vs. Lop ez5 the attempt of the federal government to regulate activities that are not commercial was struck down in a ruling. The court stated that the power of the congress under the commerce clause is limited to only commerce and the power to regulate the carrying of guns was not commercial

Effects of Peer Pressure on Decision Making Essay Example for Free

Effects of Peer Pressure on Decision Making Essay Our Peer-to-Peer interaction affects us every day. From decisions, we make, to the places we go. It is human nature to listen and learn from other people. Though we would like to think we have control over outside influences, studies show that our surroundings play a key role in how we function. Solomon Asch’s (1950) social experiment demonstrated, consumers often modify their responses, consciously or subconsciously, when surrounded by others with conflicting opinions. Peer Pressure is only rising in today’s society; it can’t be escaped! Our teenagers are the most influenced by peer pressure. Peers influence people because they want to fit in, be like peers they admire, do what others are doing, Its only natural for people to identify with and compare themselves to their peers as they consider how they wish to be (or think they should be), or what they want to achieve. see more:negative effects of peer pressure Peer Pressure is essential to social development. Its cant be escaped! In turn peer pressure can develop a good character, if its learned to be worked the right way. There are 3 main goals that individuals have in the long term: †¢Accuracy – in that individuals seek practical, consistent actions that are reproducible, through the information they already have and the actions that they do. Think of it as a need to achieve goals effectively and with the greatest perceived reward. †¢Affiliation – in that individuals seek gratification that their actions ingratiate them with other individuals. Think of it as a need to create social relationships with others in a meaningful, maintainable manner. †¢Maintenance of a Positive Self-Impression – in that people have a constant want to increase their own self-awareness so that they can feel better about themselves. Think of it as a need to behave in a manner that boosts their pre-existing self image – through action, statement, belief etc.

Mobile Game-Based Learning (mGBL) Development Methodology

Mobile Game-Based Learning (mGBL) Development Methodology 1.0 Introduction There is increasing interest in the use of ICT and educational technology to promote learning formally or informally. Such technologies are educational software in CD, web-based or online learning, e-learning, Computer-Based Training (CBT), and most recently mobile learning (m-learning). M-learning can be described as a learning technique that happens across locations or that takes advantage of learning opportunities offered by mobile technologies such as mobile phones, smart phones, PDAs and handheld devices. Many research findings show the potential and effective use of mobile technologies for learning purpose (Naismith et al., 2006; Pachler, 2007) with using variety of learning systems as listed in Table 1. Table 1: Example of Mobile Learning Systems Application Types Project Names Authors SMS text message BBC Bitesize Programme Mobile Learning Language System Learning System (Blackboard) BBC Bitesize (2003) Thornton and Houser (2004) Vassell et al. (2006) Mobile Game mGBL project Mathematic Video Game- Skills Area Virus MIT Game-To-Teach Mitchell et al. (2006) Lee et al. (2004) Collella (2000) Klopfer and Squire (2002) Mobile Application Classroom Response System -Educue Ambient Wood Butterfly Watching System Interactive Audio-Visual tour Dufresne at al. (1996) Rogers at al (2002) Chen at al. (2004) Proctor and Burton (2003) Although there are many application types in mobile learning, this research is focusing on the mobile game as a scope of study. Mobile game-based learning (mGBL) is a game specifically for learning which is also played on a mobile phone, smart phone, PDA or handheld devices. The purpose of mGBL is by using game play to enhance motivation in order to learn, engage education, or to enhance effectiveness of learning content transfer or other specific learning outcome. In a general term, mGBL can be categorized as a serious game (Sawyer and Smith, 2008). The research on serious game increases dramatically world wide (Corti, 2006) and this is due the fact that the growing usage and popularity of exploiting game to support learning (Sawyer, 2008). Figure 1 shows that the GBL is the most popular terms searched via Google amongst other game-based concept. Figure 1: Popularity on Game-Based Concept (based on Sawyer, 2008) To fully utilize the potential of mGBL, we must look beyond the practice uses of the mGBL. The most important part is the design and methodology to develop mGBL. Developing a good game is very important because to make sure the player is motivated enough to keep playing the game until the game goal has been achieved (Kramer, 2000; Rollings and Morris, 2004) and similarly to mGBL by adding learning module as stated by Prensky (2001), Becker (2006), and Gee (2003). In order to take advantage of those aspects of â€Å"good† games for learning, the design and development of mGBL must be studied. 2.0Research Motivations The ownership of mobile phone exponentially increasing all around the world. For example in Malaysia the subscriptions of mobile phone are growing rapidly with a high penetration rate (MCMC, 2007). This is due to the fact that mobile technology is naturally portable, flexible to anywhere, possible to connect us to variety of information sources and enable communication everywhere (Smith et. al, 1999; Naismith et al., 2006). With such huge potential, there is possibility of using mobile for learning because it combines the wireless connectivity and educational contents (text, multimedia, application) delivered according to learners location, requirements and skills (Salz, 2006). One of the educational content is mGBL because it can be exploited to be an interesting mobile content. Most of students like playing games. Looking at this prospective market for game, mGBL is worth to be one of the mobile learning content. In addition, there are a lot of advantages of using games for learning. Cisic et al. (2007) discuss the advantages of games which can promote learning by motivation, play environment, and role playing. Therefore mGBL suppose to be developed in an appropriate way which can further achieve the learning objective for mobile learning. Other aspect of motivating for this research is the proposed Malaysian government initiative. Norshuhada and Syamsul Bahrin (2008) have discussed about the Malaysian government initiative which has introduced the Malaysian MyICMS 886 to promote local content development: â€Å"MyICMS 886 dictates a number of strategies for the growth of local content and these are promoting awareness, building competencies in higher education and forming strategic alliances. The goals are to encourage local creativity, address new content demands and also export content. In achieving these goals, the Malaysian government together with a number of key industry players have provided many funding incentives specifically for local content production.† The Malaysian government initiative is mainly purpose to encourage local company to create and develop local-based content with their creativity for marketing both locally and internationally. 3.0Research Problem Embedding learning content to mobile games can be complicated because mobile games differ from the application software, particularly designing educational game. In order to develop mGBL, it is crucial for developer to refer at the comprehensive design and development methodology. The development of mGBL can be a combination of two models; game development method and instructional design (ID) model. Most of ID models contain valuable insights and guidelines for development of instruction. Each addresses various problems effectively and it would be foolish to ignore them in an attempt to create any learning based technology (Becker, 2006). In addition, Moser (2000) stated that ID model can and should be incorporated into new setting (in different media) for designing object learning and the ability of the method to provide the necessary element of learning. Various game design models and development methods have been proposed and are made available in different genre of games, with each having their own requirements. Similarly to ID models offer different components which cater to which context one applies (Gustfason and Branch, 1997; Moser, 2000). Although game development has a history of implementation in ID (Garris et al. (2002), literature still lack available of comprehensive methods specifically for developing mGBL applications. Most of the methods are guidelines or general approaches for developing mobile game (Dholkawala, 2007; IGDA, 2005). Other concerning aspect to develop mGBL is the restrictions on design in mobile environment such as screen design, interaction, and software/hardware dependent (Lee, 2005). The guideline on how to align with these restrictions should also be included in the development method, so that the developer will put into consideration when they apply it into the real development. 4.0Research Objectives In attempting to cater this problem, the following research objectives are devised. The main research objective is to propose a methodology for developing mobile game-based learning (mGBL). In accomplishing the main objective, the following sub-objectives are also formed: To investigate the key issues of: developing mobile game for learning embedding ID model in developing mGBL. To explore and identify the main components of methodology for developing mGBL. To develop the methodology for development of mGBL. To test the proposed methodology by developing a prototype. To evaluate the proposed methodology in term of development efficiency 5.0Research Questions In achieving the objectives, four main questions bring up: What are the key issues of developing mobile game-based learning? What are the components of design model for developing mobile casual game for learning (mGBL)? What are the flows and cycles of the mGBL development methodology? How to evaluate the efficiency of the proposed methodology? 6.0Research Methodology A prominent design science research methodology (Vaishnavi and Kuechler, 2007) will be adopted for accomplishing the research objective because the expected main output for this research is a methodology. The methodology is divided into five phases; Awareness of Problem, Suggestions Development, Evaluation, and Conclusion. Figure 2 illustrates the activities will be conducted in this study. Activities Phases 1.1 Literature study, web browsing information reuse Research Methodology 1 Awareness of Problem 2 Suggestion 3 Development 4 Evaluation 5 Conclusion 1.3 Initial study on the usage of mobile game among students 1.4 Survey study on mGame Development Methodology among mGame developers Outcomes 2.1 Study on the flow and cycle of the mGBL development Research problems Key issues of mGBL development Components of mGBL methodology 1.2 Comparative study on current mGBL methodologies/ models 3.1 Develop the proposed mGBL methodology 4.1 Test the proposed methodology by developing a prototype 5.1 Report writing and research publication 4.2 Evaluate the proposed methodology in term of development efficiency Proposed mGBL methodology mGBL Prototype Evaluation Result Publications 2.2 Combine the mGBL development components Obj 1 Obj 2 Obj 3 Obj 4 Obj 5 Figure 2: Research methodology adopted from Vaishnavi Kuechler (2007) 7.0Comparative Study on the GBL Design and Development Models This study is conducted in order to compare and explore the available design and development methods proposed by several researchers. The collected models can be analyzed into two: (1) General Game-based Learning Models and (2) Mobile Game Design Models and Methodologies. The general GBL models as following: Amory and Seagram (2003) Game Object Model (GOM), Game Achievement Model (GAM); and Persona Outlining Model (POM). Amory (2007) Game Object Model II Garris et al. (2002) Input-Process-Outcome Game Model Kiili (2005) Kiilis Model Norma (2005) Engaging Multimedia Design Model Watson (2007) Games for Activating Thematic Engagement (GATE) Tan et al. (2007) Adaptive Digital Game-based Learning Framework Noor Azli et al. (2008) Framework for Designing GBL for Children Nor Azan Wong (2008) -GBL Model for history courseware design The mobile game development models and methodologies as listed below: Mitchell et al. (2006) mGBL model Paras Bizzocchi (2005) -Integrated Model for Educational Game Design Dholkawala (2005) Best Practice for Mobile Game Development McGuire (2006) Scrum Methodology Dynamic Ventures (2007) -Game Development Methodology Edwards Coulton (2006) Design-Protect-Build-Test-Market-Sell Novak (2004, 2007) Game Development Process Janousek (2007) Game Life Cycle The separation between the above two analyzed categories is based on the differences on the design model and development methodologies. As stated by Vaishnavi and Kuechler (2007), design model is a set of propositions which express the relationship between components or concept. On the other hand, development methodology is a set of steps or guidelines used to perform a task. Table 2 and 3 illustrate a summary of the comparative study on the design or development models and methodologies for game-based learning (GBL), mobile game (mGame), and mobile game-based learning (mGBL). The analysis is based on descriptions, advantages, and disadvantages of the models. Table 2: A summary of GBL models No. Name Author/ Proposed by Description Disadvantages 1. GOM (Game Object Model) Amory Seagram (2003) GOM is a design model and also an evaluation model GOM relates game elements to the promotion of educational objectives 2. GAM (Game Achievement Model) Amory Seagram (2003) GAM is a design and evaluation model GAM is part of GOM The GAM works on the principle of linking educational and in-game objectives in order to create a continuous experience and maintain interest in the game. This forms the outline of the game and the basic story. 3. POM (Persona Outlining Model) Amory Seagram (2003) POM is a design and evaluation model POM uses expected player interaction to build a persona concept to better define the best design POM works under the concept of four fundamental questions. Who will be exploiting the system? What will they be doing? How will they do it? With what technology will the system be developed? 4. GOM Version II Amory (2007) GOM II is an extended model of GOM The most significant addition caused by this model the addition of the Social Space This is only a design model which is not providing the development methodology. GOM has a tendency to focus too much on mechanical aspects GOM covers so many things it will become necessary to create a complicated evaluation system to match it. Although it claims to be a model that integrates education theory and game design, it does so at an abstract level by placing a requirement for learning objectives as part of the model. There are no actual examples and there is no data. This model doesnt really do much to address how to implement learning objectives, which to my mind is at the core of all instructional design. These model generally applicable for educational software. 5. Input-Process-Outcome Game Model Garris et al. (2002) This is a design model. The model adopts the input-process-output framework, and provides a game cycle that is triggered by specific game features. The objective of this model is to incorporate instructional and certain features of games at first level which then trigger a cycle that includes user judgments or reactions such as enjoyment or interest, user behaviors such as greater persistence or time on task, and further system feedback. Finally, this engagement in game play leads to the achievement of training objectives and specific learning outcomes. This is only a design model which is not providing the development methodology. The model focuses on the game play and game cycle. 6. Kiilis Model Kiili (2005) This is a design model. The model works to related already existent game theory with already existent educational theory in order to create a functional model based off of already well accepted concepts. Foremost important in the Killi Model is the concept of Flow Theory found in game design. Kiliis model can best be viewed as one large problem linked by a series of smaller problems. This is only a design model which is not providing the development methodology. Kiliis model focuses only on behavioral aspects 7. Engaging Multimedia Design Model Norma (2005) This is a design model. This model focuses on the engagement level of a learner. The concept of this model can be adapted into designing an educational game. This is only a design model which is not providing the development methodology. This model is a general model for multimedia design specifically for children. 8. GATE (Games for Activating Thematic Engagement) theory Watson (2007) This is a design model. GATE theory is a theory of educational game design driven around the principles of engaging the learner in a topic in order to encourage further exploration. The underlying premise behind GATE is to make the player autonomous and self-motivated. The model heavily based upon the works of Bruner This is only a design model which is not providing the development methodology. The GATE model is too abstract. The GATE model is still too new for there to be a body of evidence that either supports or refutes its value. 9. Adaptive Digital Game-based Learning Framework Tan et al. (2007) The model focuses on both of the design and learners aspects. In learners aspect, it consists of psychological needs, cognitive development, and learning behavior. In design elements, it consists of multimodal, task, and feedback. This is only a design model which is not providing the development methodology. This model is still new and needs several studies to support on it effectiveness. 10. Framework for Designing GBL for Children Noor Azli et al. (2008) A design model which is modified from Kiilis Model Emphasize cognitive presence by stressing the importance of reflective observation and knowledge construction The model specifically to Pre-school domain. This is only a design model which is not providing the development methodology. This model is still new and needs several studies to support on it effectiveness. 11. GBL Model for history courseware design Nor Azan Wong (2008) A design model The model focuses on components of history courseware design for Secondary school- upper level. The model consists of 2 components; pedagogy and digital games components. This is only a design model which is not providing the development methodology. This model is also still new and needs several studies to support on it effectiveness. Table 3: A summary of mGame and mGBL design models and methodologies 1. mGBL Model Mitchell et al. (2006) The mGBL models will be iteratively developed within a social-constructivist framework, using experiential learning and situated learning theories that see learning as a social activity constructed in interactions with others. This approach suits learning models delivered via mobile phones. Importantly, they will also support creative decision-making, encouraging players to consider decisions from different perspectives with a focus on mission, defining significant results and doing rigorous assessment. The mGBL model has been applied to these domain: e-health, e-commerce, career guidance, and m-government Although this model is the most relevant to mGBL, but it focuses on the design part. This is only a design model which is not providing the development methodology. 2. Integrated Model for Educational Game Design Paras Bizzocchi (2005) This model reconciles flow, learning, and motivation within an immersive game experience. The model shows that games foster play, which produces a state of flow, which then increases motivation, and lastly supports the learning process. This is only a design model which is not providing the development methodology. 3. Best Practice for Mobile Game Development Dholkawala (2005) This methodology suggests steps in developing mobile game in general from developing game concept until the trimming process. These guidelines are general use for developing mobile game which not includes the ID model. 4. Scrum Methodology McGuire (2006) The methodology is based on Agile Methodology. The iterative process is a main concern for this methodology. It focuses on the tasks given to each individual of the development team. This methodology also for general use for developing mobile game which not includes the ID model. 5. Game Development Methodology Dynamic Ventures, Inc. (2007) The methodology provides guideline to develop general mobile game It focuses on the feedback and input from the client, stakeholders and developers. The methodology is an iterative process. This methodology also for general use for developing mobile game which not includes the ID model. 6. Design-Protect-Build-Test-Market-Sell Edwards Coulton (2006) This methodology extends the Design-Build-Test philosophy. The added processes are protecting IP, marketing and selling games. The methodology is also an iterative process. This methodology also for general use for developing mobile game which not includes the ID model. 7. Game Development Process Novak (2004, 2007) The development process similar to multimedia development phases. The main focus of the methodology is the design documents such as game proposal, game design document, technical design document and test plan. This methodolo

Cultural Norms Determine Emotions Sociology Essay

Cultural Norms Determine Emotions Sociology Essay Culture has been recognized by sociologists and anthropologists to carry a particular display roles or norms. These affect the supervision of emotions and establish commonality and predictable behaviour among individuals and their social environment in response to various emotional stimulations. Therefore, it is of primary importance to address the issue how and why cultural norms can determine the emotional status of people. Levy (1984) defines culture as an internalized system of controlling people in order to construct adaptive, integrated and sane attitude. Culture influences individuals in a multi-level perspective and shapes human beliefs, emotions and behaviour through various traditions, ethnic belonging and national identification. In this paper I will attempt to illustrate how cultural norms have a profound effect on peoples emotions and demonstrate a clear understanding of the interaction between emotional state of mind and the culture and where they are positioned in soci ety. We witness culture since we were born. We are learning about culture mainly through socialization. Caruso and Salovey (2004) examine culture on a macro lever, meaning how culture influence emotional expressions in different nations and ethnic groups. They conclude that cultural beliefs, symbols and emotional patters are shared by a complex system of processes called socialization. These are the key points and issues to be discussed in this essay which aims to illustrate the dramaturgical and structural perspectives on the sociology of emotions by contrasting them. On another level culture also provides shared symbols such as norms, language, traditions, customs and frame in this way the value, feelings and behaviour of its members. On a group level culture influences emotional process through the performance roles individuals have in society (Levy, 1984). In order for sociologists and anthropologists to comprehend and explain the emotional processes they have to study cultures from t he point of view of cognitive social psychology (Druskat and Wolff, 1999). Lazarus (1991) proposes that there are two phases of the emotional process. The first one involved awareness of the events and the second one represents the behavioural response to the emotions stimulated. Culture and social structure are interrelated. Both reproduce order and alter emotions during the course of interacting with other individuals. Lewis (2000) claims that there are at least five theoretical research traditions in the sociology of emotions which are related to the significant aspects of sociological analysis. Lewis (2000) enumerates the models as dramaturgical (Culture), structural (social structure), symbolic-interactionist (cognitive appraisal) and ritual and exchange (interaction) perspectives on emotions. I will concentrate on dramaturgical and structural ones. Dramaturgical approaches to the sociology of emotions focus on the importance of culture in supplying ideologies for emotions, feeling rules, knowledge and vocabularies. This structure is provided by Gordon (1981). According to him the elements of culture act as cognitive guidelines to what emotions might be experienced and conveyed in situations. An example of dramaturgical perspective on emotional sociology is made by Schmitt and Clark (2006). Their studies conclude how emotions are culturally decoded so as to when to feel and how to give raise to feelings. During the process of socialization individuals learn how to associate certain emotion vocabularies with particular situations and internal sensations. What makes the approach dramaturgical is that individuals are screened as performing on a stage, constructed by social structure (audience). Each person employs different cultural scripts in order to perform his role. In this sense people are dramatic actors, because they utilize their emotions to manipulate others through expressive control of their behaviour on the stage. People take advantage of the knowledge they store for the appropriate feelings and their displays and follow strategies to reach their goal. Through various manipulations of postures, language, role play, or talk individuals consciously apply dramatic emotional displays to gain recognition, favour, control or social status (Schmitt and Clark, 2006). Recent research in dramaturgy reveals that there are cases when social structure demands from individuals to express emotions that they do not feel. Hochsehilds (1983) research on flight attendants and bill controllers is an example and clear illustration how dramaturg y can be inseparable from emotions in a cultural and social context. The emphasis on culture in dramaturgical perspective aids us in understanding how emotional responses are learned and applied in situations. Another example of cultural displays and emotional management is given by Pierce (1995). Her research highlights that emotions can be gendered and this is so, because of the different social positions men and women occupy and the social roles they are expected to perform. She gives an example of male and female lawyers. Lawyers who are male are supposed to be aggressive, whereas, women are generally considered paralegals and are expected to be more nurturing. Dramaturgical perspectives of sociology of emotions involve emotions associated with already rehearsed social roles and conscious emotional manipulation. All sociological perspectives studying emotions involve social structure as part of the analyses. However, it is not only an analysis of the social structure, but also how relevant is the relationship between emotions and social structures. Theories and researches in the sociology of emotions often emphasize on a relatively small specter of social-structural properties. According to Lewis (2000) the most prominent theories in this direction, investigate micro-level power (authority) and status or prestige dissimilarities among individuals and emotions during the course of interaction, including stratifications, institutional spheres and macro-level processes. Berger and Webster (2006) create set of approaches that follow the micro-level order in interactions. They reveal that there are differences in relative power and in status among individuals. Berger and Webster conclude that the dissimilarities are forced by the existing social structures. In other cases they emerge in the cours e of the very interaction. Furthermore, the differences can be encoded in cultural beliefs for the people that stay high or low in the social ladder. Here too, like in the dramaturgical perspective, emotions generate expectations. Therefore, there is a similar characteristic in the two approaches. In dramaturgical as well as in the structural the differences in emotional stimulations are likely to occur in ethnicity, age, social class, or gender. Berger and Webster (2006) state that when individuals react in accordance with the expectations what depicts them as belonging to a certain hierarchy, they display and experience positive emotions such as pride, happiness. In contrast, those who were in low-ranking status, are predisposed to experience negative emotions, for example anger or fear. Individuals perceive that their low rank in their own fault and blame themselves, and that is the reason why they are affected by negative emotions and dissatisfaction. All these are consequences of structural arrangements which work quite unfairly. Social structure, therefore determines to a large degree the level of emotions and their polarity. Kemper (1978) comments that when individuals gain power their positive attitude and self-presentation grows accordingly. For Barbalet (1998) emotions are distributes unevenly and differently across segments of society, usually corresponding to each of the socio-economic status segments. People react emotionally in regards to their social standing and what advantages this brings them particular shares of money, power, or prestige something what they can not obtain in a lower social belonging. Fear is one of the emotions that Barbalet (1998) theorizes to differentiate between social ranking. Fear is generated from the lack of power. Usually individuals attribute this to their shortcomings. In his analysis Barbalet (1998) preliminary speculates that emotions are like most resources and consequently are distr ibutes unequally. Particular kinds of emotions emerge among some subpopulations and have rather predictable conditions. However, sociological theory will have to elaborate on the conditions determining those emotions and define the potential effects that they have on collective actions in society (Lewis, 2002). Lewis (2000) says that most of the structural theories on emotions are oriented to the micro-level, meaning that they examine situations and processes and face to face and daily interactions such are power or social status. But, micro-level course of actions happen within the context of macrostructural operations. In the structural theory of emotions in order for them to emerge, there needs to be interconnections between the micro and macro level of the structure. These differentiations were no present in the dramaturgical perspective. For the structural theory of emotions a whole category of individuals regardless of their gender, class belonging, race or cultural values, can experience very similar emotions, because they are placed in the same stratification system (Lewis, 2000). They are structurally identical, thereby, they are likely to have the same experiences, which creates similar emotional reactions. Cultural concepts determine in greater degree the emotional quality and the versatile emotions that people experience. While discussing various approaches, special attention was paid to dramaturgical and structural perspectives of the sociology of emotions. Examples were given illustrating the two methods and seeing that even though they differ they are similarities namely that emotions are the result of culturally translated elements. Integrated into the cognition processes, emotions are cultural just like traditions and values. We need to posses some cultural knowledge in order to recognize certain emotions. Evaluating emotions requires a comprehensive framework about different concepts of culture and cultural norms. Emotions are socially constructed just like cultural norms and we can say that emotional are also collectively directed because they transfer the inward relation of the individual with the surrounding social structures. Both approaches, the dramaturgical and the structural are based on the social organization of human behaviour and how it is controlled through the means of psychology. Cultural norms determine emotions, because they are socially organized activities, they are psychological phenomena and they involve human behaviour.

Evolution of the Human Diet Essay -- Human Adaptation, Homo Genus

The members of the Homo genus possess a combination of unique features that distinguish them from other related species. At the time that each respective species was alive, they were able to walk upright on two legs, use their large brains for the benefit of their species, and could thrive in many geographically and climatically diverse areas of the world. One of the most mysterious quandaries in science is how the lineage of the Homo genus became so different from their primate relatives. Bipedalism, brain size, and location diversity all have a common link that may explain this difference – dietary evolution allowed humans to adapt to their surroundings, and in turn, become a more advanced species. The Homo diet evolved in relation to food availability and nutritional necessity. With the ability to maintain a proper diet, the species of the Homo genus were able to flourish and advance toward the development of modern Homo sapiens. Nutrition is a basic necessity of life. Without a proper and well-balanced diet, it is difficult for any being, regardless of species, to survive. Unlike that of primates such as the great apes, the human diet is more full of calories and nutrients. Humans have a great understanding of what types of food are necessary to maintain good health. It is difficult to tell when the eating habits of Homo sapiens split apart from the eating habits of these other primates. Yet, one fact is certain. As human evolution continues to progress, the human diet also continues to evolve. In 1985, scholars S. Boyd Eaton and Melvin J. Konner published a paper in the New England Journal of Medicine entitled ‘Paleolithic Nutrition’ that provided insight to he evolution of human nutritional requirements. Although... ...e. "A Hypothesis to Explain the Role of Meat-Eating in Human Evolution." Www.cnr.berkely.edu. 4 Feb. 2001. Web. . Strait, David S. "The Feeding Biomechanics and Dietary Ecology of Australopithecus Africanus." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 12 Dec. 2008. Web. 19 Nov. 2015. . Teaford, Mark F. "Diet and the Evolution of the Earliest Human Ancestors." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 5 Oct. 2000. Web. 19 Nov. 2015. . Ungar, Peter S., and Mark Franklyn Teaford. Human Diet: Its Origin and Evolution. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey, 2002. Print. Ungar, Peter S. Evolution of the Human Diet: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007. Print.

Emperor Caligula Biography Essay -- essays research papers

Emperor Caligula On August 31st, 12 AD Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder gave birth to the third Roman emperor during the Julio-Claudian Dynasty. During the beginning of his reign, it seemed to be, as most would call it â€Å"a dream come true†. But after a few favorable accomplishments, Caligula became the deranged tyrant he is known for today. Born Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, he acquired the name Caligula at the age of two. After being separated from his parents for eighteen months, Augustus prepared traveling arrangements that would re-unite him with his mother. His parents gave him an oversized soldier’s uniform with military boots and he became the mascot for the troops. Thus, he received the Latin nickname for â€Å"Little Boot†. Three months after he acquired this nickname, Augustus died and the troops rebelled. For the sake of her family, Agrippina prepared to leave with her son. Quickly realizing how savage their behavior was, the troops stopped rebelling and begged Agrippina to stay. They said, â€Å"the mere sight of little Gaius unquestionably calmed them down.† Germanicus let Caligula stay, but made Agrippina leave because she was about to give birth. After Germanicus (Caligula’s father) and the Roman army had defeated the Germans, a victory parade began in Rome. Caligula was placed in a chariot alongside his father as they rode throughout Rome. Not long after, Germanicus was sent to the Middle East with his family where he received new military duties. The five-year-old Caligula also accompanied him. Even though Germanicus had all authority in the East, Piso of Syria challenged him. After a long fought battle, Germanicus became ill and died. This event remained strong in Caligula’s memory and could have le... ...tus, was treated with more honor than the most honorable citizens in Rome. He intended to appoint the horse as a consul, but the little sanity he had left led him to abandon this idea. Not long after his many tyrannical actions, the Praetorian guards planned his murder. According to history books, the guards mainly killed Caligula for personal reasons but many believe that Caligula’s successor Claudius was involved. January 24, 41 AD, Emperor Caligula was assassinated by the Praetorian guards. Many Roman people believed that Tiberius’ later years damaged the carefully crafted political edifice put together by Augustus. They then realized that Tiberius was a glorious emperor compared to Caligula. As the people called him â€Å"our baby† and â€Å"our star†, it is ironic that his name later became synonymous with words such as hedonism, cruelty, tyranny, and insanity.

Bibliography paper

Discuss the relative merits of top-down and bottom-up approaches to the diffusion of renewable energy technologies. †Word count: 1300 Introduction The question of whether an Initiative Is considered top-down or bottom-up Is a question of perspective, so a local council Annihilative can be viewed as a bottom up If you view It from a central government perspective, whereas you could view It as top down If you were one of the residents.Diffusion follows the innovation phase, and is all about uptake of new products by consumers, how new products enter the market and spread across. Therefore, diffusion is a measure of how successfully a new product has spread through society. In his book ‘Diffusion of Innovations' ref) Everett Rogers espouses that there are four mall elements that Influence the spread of a new Idea: the innovation Itself, communication channels, time, and a social system.In order to self-sustain, the Innovation must be widely adopted. The diffusion of Innovati ons according to Rogers. With successive groups of consumers adopting the new technology (shown in blue), its market share (yellow) will eventually reach the saturation level. Diffusion doesn't happen by itself, as it squires element of the marketing mix: product price place promotion. Process physical evidence properties pleasure people. ND Rogers' criteria for diffusion: relative advantage (offering a competitive advantage) complexity (being easy to use) compatibility (matching existing products) Absorbability (seeing the product in use) Tractability (trying the product out) Diffusion is also significantly affected by such factors as the efforts companies and organizations put into achieving those marketing mix elements and criteria for diffusion: government Initiatives aimed at Influencing the take up of new cosmologies (top-down, technology push); and the characteristics of the consumers In that market place.In the conventional depictions of consumer responses to products, consu mers are seen as passive – simply selecting from what Is on offer. However, some consumers are becoming more selective and are concerned about accordingly In his book ‘Enabling Innovation', Boor Outwitted describes innovation as involving a Darwinian process of selection. New ideas are tested and tried, but adopted only if they are seen as valuable by consumers (*ref) Top down *See â€Å"what makes renewable energy work. UDF† in 30TH folder Any technology signed to be used by society on the macro level (larger scale) needs to be integrated into existing technical and social structures. This means that these structures must be adapted to support an efficient use of the technology. The task of managing this adaptation requires the finance and support of governments.Key elements of technology support systems for renewable energy systems are: Public awareness and acceptance Qualification of everyone that interacts with the system (Installation, Maintenance and Operat ion) Quality control: every new technology goes through a number of iterations until reliable and efficient operation is achieved. If products entering the market do not meet a minimum standard confidence will be affected and diffusion may be prematurely halted. Organizational infrastructures supporting the technology must be in place to guarantee that a deficient device can be repaired quickly, and that spare parts are available.Logistical infrastructures are in place to provide fuels (in the case of Biomass) efficiently and in sufficient quantities – this may require the use of financial incentives for farmers to switch to alternative crops to support the technology. Development of standards regarding the renewable technology and fuels seed by them – this will encourage more manufacturers to enter the market thus driving performance up, and costs down, enabling further diffusion. Qualification of those indirectly confronted by the technology – architects, plan ners, public decision makers.They have special interests and create new markets with their purchasing choices. They influence the market in a bottom-up way.. Level 5 developer consumers. They develop new or modified products to meet their needs or concerns. They become more proactive in a bottom-up way in terms of technological innovation, and sometimes operate in niche markets. Level 6 Consumer innovators. Consumer initiatives lead to success and diffusion. The products transcend the niche markets created by these proactive consumers, and these products and the enterprises that have created them may become part of the mainstream. These consumers change the market and the products, and these changes may become part of the new order.At each successive level in this list, the influence of businesses on innovation and effusion decreases, as consumer influence and involvement increases. However, in all categories, business involvement is still strong and ultimately, at level 6, any succ essful products emerging from the bottom-up process are likely to be taken up by conventional companies. ‘The levels of consumer involvement shown above apply to individual consumers and small grass-roots user groups. However, these are not the only sources of external influence on the rate of technological development and diffusion. Consumers can also be part of wider consumer organizations and environmental pressure groups. Placements through the lobbying power and public influence of large numbers of members. For example, green groups may oppose nuclear power and support solar power. Clearly, given the involvement of grass-roots activists, this is a bottom-up approach, although some pressure groups have national and international roles and can be major players in the high-level political processes. ‘ The DVD includes illustrative examples which are relevant to your discussion on the relative merits of each aspect of the top-down and bottom-up approaches. They include the Hector Housing project, the Austrian DID solar case study, SamÃ'‘, Local generation in Waking etc. Ochs your attention to the good aspects of each approach. Think about such things as where these approaches might be best suited (and examples thereof), and also how whether they are mutually exclusive. Argue the case for and against various strategies for supporting diffusion for specific technologies or programmers. – Identify in general terms the key factors likely to influence the successful diffusion of new technological developments – Assess the relative merits of top-down and bottom-up approaches to diffusion and to the wider innovation process. Http://nun. Du/publications/articles/policy-innovation-for-technology-diffusion- Japanese-renewable-energy. HTML – Bottom up driving top-down: â€Å"Prior to the adoption of RPR, there were vociferous calls from the civil society requesting that the government introduce another policy model instead. The Feed-i n Tariff (FIT) is a policy generally proven to be successful in the member states of the European Union† Learning outcome 1 . 1: The way in which market, environmental and economic factors influence the consumer take-up (diffusion) of new products. – Block 4, page : key points of section 1 Block 4, page : key points of section 2 http://www. Warwick. AC. UK/face/cross_face/low_carbon/conference/programmer/low- carbon_conference_king_Wang_final_comma. PDF Diffusion theory is a collection of concepts that attempt to explain how new ideas, products or practices are taken up into use by domestic, commercial and industrial consumers.According to Everett Rogers (1983), a leading theoretician, diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system' leading to its subsequent adoption into widespread use. Rogers identifies five factors that influence diffusion. He suggests the ease and rate performan ce and/or cost terms, compared with existing products compatibility – with existing products, and with consumers' values and lifestyles complexity – by contrast, he argues that complexity is a negative attribute absorbability – seeing it in action, including seeing how others get on using it Tractability – availability for personally checking out its merits.In addition, perceived risk or danger in use could be added to the list as another potential disincentive. Consumers have increasingly become active in making complaints about the quality of products and services. In parallel, and more positively, consumers increasingly seem to be willing to put effort into searching for what they want. This is not to do simply with price. With a generally more affluent population, the focus is increasingly on performance and quality as well as value. Block 4, pig 15 For the present, it should simply be noticed that not all of this enhanced consumer selectivity is rela ted to self-interested personal utility concerns such as performance, quality or technical advantages, or even a desire for more things.Some consumers have adopted wider ethical stances in relation to what they buy and what they will tot buy, and sometimes, how much they will buy. In practice, only a few people opt for frugal denial, but many more are concerned about the sheer volume of their personal consumption and may seek to cut back on things they feel are frivolous or in some way undesirable. According to research for the Co-operative Banks Ethical Purchasing Index, in the period from 1999 to 2002, 52 per cent of I-J consumers boycotted at least one product because they disapproved of the practices of the company concerned. It was estimated that E. 6 billion had been lost by firms in 2002 due to consumers switching brands on ethical grounds.A survey in 2004 of potential consumer attitudes to companies that did not comply with the new environmental legislation requiring compani es to reduce carbon dioxide emissions -introduced under the EX. Emissions trading scheme(Elk TEST) – found that consumers would vote with their feet if companies failed to comply with this new green legislation. One in three respondents to the survey said they would switch brand allegiance on environmental grounds if a company they regularly buy goods and services from failed to comply (Illogical, 2004). Moreover, consumer responses are not simply negative – some consumers will costively select products which comply with environmental legislation or which are marketed as, for example, involving fair trading with producers in developing countries, or which avoid testing on animals.Block 4, pig 16 environmental sensitivities that influence their purchasing decisions; some companies have responded to this new market; and the government seems keen that the public should do more, particularly in relation to selecting environmentally appropriate products. Learning outcome 1. 2: The role of consumers in supporting new product lines, resisting unwanted options and, on occasion, stimulating the production of, or even actually developing, desired products and services. – Block 4, page : key points of section 1 Block 4, page : Key points of section 2 Block 4, page : key points of section 4 Block 4, page : Key points of Section 5 Block 4, page : key points of section 6 Learning outcome 1. : The difference between top-down and bottom-up approaches to innovation and diffusion and the potential role of consumers and users in aiding diffusion and innovation. Block 4, page : key points of section 1 Block 4, page : key points of section 5 (Bottom -up) Block 4, page : key points of Section 6 (Bottom-up) Block 4, page : key points of Section 7 (Top-down) Learning outcome 1. 4: Consumer involvement with innovation and diffusion in the renewable energy sector and the problems that such activity may come up against. Block 4, : key points of section 1 Block 4, pa ge : key points of Section 2 Block 4, page : Impact on technology diffusion Block 4, page : key points of section 3 : key points of section 5 page page Block 4, page Consumer involvement classification.I have identified six levels of consumer involvement: At each successive level in this list, the influence of businesses on innovation and diffusion decreases, as consumer influence and involvement increases. However, in all categories, business involvement is still strong and ultimately, at level 6, any successful products emerging from the bottom-up process Block 4, page Governments influence the mix of products and systems in ways often beyond the control of consumers, through regulation, taxes and other policy mechanisms. They seek to stimulate the development and diffusion of selected technologies in line with wider national or international strategic priorities. For example, based on environmental policy, governments may seek to phase out the use of coal for electricity generati on and to back wind, wave or tidal power.Clearly this sort of influence involves a top-down approach, although one moderated by democratic processes. Learning outcomes 1. 5: The role of government in influencing the direction and effectiveness of the innovation process and the strategic development of technology in the context of trying to move to the environmentally sustainable use of energy. Block 4, page : Government energy options Block 4, page : Conclusions Block 4, page : key points of section 7 Block 4, pig 10 : key points of section 8 Block 4, piggy : key points of section 9 Learning outcome 1. 10: The role of diffusion and the part played by consumers in paving to a more sustainable approach to energy use.SAA 14: It is true that most innovations are the result of efforts by companies to develop products that will sell to consumers, with governments perhaps providing support for specific lines of development deemed strategically important. However, as has been argued in this block, the diffusion process can be greatly aided if consumers and users are involved in some way. Indeed, motivated consumers and users can sometimes create markets for new areas of innovation. Even when it comes to Just responding to innovations developed by others, the social and community context is important for diffusion. Certainly diffusion may be delayed or prevented if the community opposes the innovation – as was illustrated in the case of wind power.More positively, bottom-up initiatives from the grass-roots can sometimes throw up original ideas that can be diffused widely. Indeed, in some sectors this can be a major source of innovation in terms of new product development, as well as aiding Block 4, pig 23 Diffusion is the final stage of the innovation process, and is concerned with the take-up of new products by consumers. The rate of diffusion at any one time depends on how consumers react to new products. Some will adopt them quickly, most others will take the ir time, and a few will remain hesitant until there is no other option. In the conventional depictions of consumer responses to products, consumers are seen as passive – simply selecting from what is on offer.However, some consumers are becoming more selective and some are concerned about ethical, social and environmental issues and are adjusting their purchasing choices accordingly. A bottom-up grass-roots approach to innovation may offer some advantages over a top-down approach, by ensuring involvement of users in both reduce development and diffusion. A technology â€Å"push,† also known as top down transfer, is diffusion from higher levels of authority to lower levels. An example of â€Å"push† is Federal efforts at technology transfer through legislation, regulation, or policy. Entrepreneurs and other individuals or organizations whose objectives are to implement a technology typically â€Å"push† in order to do so. In marketing terms, the client is â€Å"sold† the technology.A transfer â€Å"pull† is Just the opposite, a bottom-up form of diffusion. The client demands the technology. The search for innovation moves up from the lower levels f an organization until it is accepted or addressed and resolved by higher authorities. Two systems exist for diffusion of innovation: centralized or decentralized. Decision making in centralized systems is concentrated at a high level, while decentralized systems feature wide sharing of power within the diffusion network. In centralized systems diffusion is vertical – from the top down, as innovations emerge from formal R&D projects. Centralized systems favor technology push, where â€Å"needs† are defined at a high level.Innovations which cannot be easily modified, or re-invented, re best diffused using a centralized system. Decentralized systems use horizontal diffusion, as local experimentation is often the innovation source and use technology pull, where need s are defined locally. Innovations which lend themselves to modification are best diffused by a decentralized approach because such an approach allows local adaptation of innovations to reflect local needs. There are, as a general rule, two types of projects. Projects following top-down procedures where large projects are conceived and announced by the Ministry of Scientific Research and Information or Ministry of Environment. Those commissioned projects are rewarded with large amount of money.The second type of project concerns smaller ones and follows a bottom-up approach with three different types of grants: grants for public research (PRO or Universities), SEEM projects and projects supported by the EX. Framework programmer. Http://sustainabledevelopment. UN. Org/content/documents/Kandahar. PDF top down monitoring and audit process to ensure that the quality standards are strictly met and the Company policies and procedures are being properly followed Top-down Definition  œ A development or change initiated and managed from above by overspent or companies: the conventional approach macroeconomic measures Block 4, pig 82 governments can ensure the successful development and spread of strategically selected technologies.This will include a look at new technology development as well as at diffusion because the successful diffusion of new products frequently rests on how well those products have been developed. For example, the UK government's 2003 innovation review identified environmental issues, and the need for improved, lower impact products and services, as a key driver for future innovation. The review suggested that some of the new developments would be specific environmental goods and services, such as technologies to minimize pollutants or promote resource efficiency, or renewable energy sources Block 4, pig 86 Nevertheless, in order to achieve its aim of increasing the contribution from renewable, the I-J government found it necessary to provi de support to enable the newly emerging technologies to enter the marketplace.New technologies usually face a challenge in trying to get established in markets dominated by the existing range of products, and this was clearly a problem for renewable faced with the nominate fossil fuel and nuclear industries. So the government decided to provide extra support to stimulate diffusion, by adjusting the market. As noted earlier, this is sometimes called market ennoblement – enabling key new technologies to be taken up by the market. Block 4, pig 90 By contrast, the subsidy systems for wind projects in Germany, Denmark and elsewhere meant they could make use of locations with much lower wind speeds – indeed they often had little choice because, for example, Denmark is mostly flat and wind speeds there and in Germany are generally much lower than in the I-J. Block 4, pig 93

Learning New Research Concepts or Techniques by Writing and Other Research Activities Essay

The way to go about determining if certain resources are adequate for college assignments would be through an evaluation process. In chapter five of the course material, it provides the six tests of evidence that helps to conclude if discovered information can be utilized for a paper. The first test is regarding credibility. If a source is credible it should be information based on fact rather than opinion. The next test to examine is if the material is unbiased. Be sure founded information has room for other points of view about the issue so that the presentation of material in your paper is fair and balanced† (Sole, K. (2010). Writing College research papers. Another test to examine would be to verify if the information is relevant and relates to your topic. Next, is the source complete? â€Å"Do not take information out of context and mislead the reader by using only the portion of the information that supports your opinion about a topic† (Sole, K. (2010). Writing College research papers. The logical test is to make sure the information makes sense and is consistent with other known evidence. The final test would be to determine how current the resource is. Confirm the sources you use are as current as possible and have not been replaced by more recent research findings. Check to find the date an article was written or, if it has no date, check the copyright or revision date on the Web page to determine how recently the information was updated (Sole, K. (2010). Writing College research papers. An example of a suitable source would be an article from the Ashford Library, because Ashford Online Library have been archived by professional information management specialists, and Ashford University professional staff have selected specific databases for the library that are the most appropriate for your college courses. In other words, they are university and faculty approved. Sole, K. (2010) Writing College research papers. An unsuitable source would be Wikipedia, but can often be used to lead to other sources of information for an assignment.

Death Penalty: the Christian View

In almost every society, there are crimes and violations of human rights. To deal with these things, there are laws that prescribe the prevention of their occurrences. However, if the law is broken, commensurate punishment is put on the violator. Depending on the seriousness of the crime, the punishment may be light such as imprisonment for up to one year with corresponding fines, or it could also be severe as death penalty. Capital punishment or death penalty is usually imposed on persons who committed heinous crimes and are those that endanger the safety of the society. Some countries and societies implement capital punishment while others do not. There are various reasons for this policy of countries, including the social view on the death penalty and the prevailing religious view in the society among others. One of the foremost arguments for the imposition of death penalty is that it acts as a deterrent for heinous crimes. Most societies throughout history have used capital punishment. Governments have also used this extensively to execute persons that do not conform to the laws and standards of conduct in the society. Throughout history, capital punishment was also used to suppress political dissent and to preserve the prevailing order in the society. Nowadays, the death penalty is being imposed on capital crimes such as treason against the state, espionage, and murder. In other countries, crimes that are of sexual nature such as rape, sodomy, and adultery are also punishable by death. Human trafficking, plunder and corruption, as well as drug trafficking are also punishable by death in other countries. The foremost reason being given for the imposition of capital punishment is its power to deter crimes. The argument says that if heinous crimes are punishable by death, would-be perpetrators of such crimes would protect their lives and they will not commit heinous crimes. On the part of the victims of such crimes, they also receive justice and redress for the injury through the capital punishment. On the other hand, capital punishment is a lot less expensive than life imprisonment (Paternoster, 1991). There are a lot of debates surrounding the imposition of capital punishment. Almost all countries in Europe, as well as in the Pacific area, and Latin America have abolished capital punishment in the name of respecting and protecting human rights. There are still a large number of countries that retained it, however. The United States Federal government with 36 States has retained it. Brazil imposes capital punishment only during wartime while countries in Asia and Africa also retained it. Notably, South Africa does not have capital punishment in spite of the high incidence of violent crimes such as murder and rape. South Korea no longer imposes capital punishment, as well as Uzbekistan, because it was not being used for a long time. A number of individuals, organizations, and human rights advocates object to the imposition of capital punishment. The questions they raise concern the effectiveness of capital punishment in deterring crimes. Moreover, there is always the possibility that the innocent person will be sentenced to death. Once the penalty is imposed, it can no longer be undone even if a separate investigation will render the accused as innocent from the crimes. There are also a number of instances in which minority groups are discriminated against in imposing capital punishment. Minority groups usually have lesser access to the best lawyers. As such, they run the greater risk of being proclaimed guilty for the crimes for which they are accused. With capital punishment, once death penalty is imposed, it is final. The person will have no chance to reform his ways or redeem his actions. He has been condemned by the courts to be forever separated from the rest of the society. In the 62nd General Assembly of the United Nations in 2007, the UN passed a resolution calling for the universal ban on capital punishment. This resolution asked the member-states of the UN to impose a moratorium on imposing the death penalty with the eventual plan of abolishing capital punishment. This resolution was made in recognition of the human rights of accused criminals and the possibility of redemption and change. Various religions also have varied responses to capital punishment. Even a particular denomination or religious group may not have a unified stand regarding capital punishment. Religious sentiments do play a significant part in the views of people regarding capital punishment. The Bible is replete with various passages that may seem to support or condemn capital punishment. The Old Testament, particularly, is based upon a morality of â€Å"teeth against teeth† and â€Å"life for life. † The books of laws of the Old Testament actually prescribe stoning to death the persons who commit serious crimes against God and against the community. A number of biblical scholars have considered the part of the Ten Commandments that say â€Å"You shall not kill† as a prohibition against individual cases of murder (The Ryrie Study Bible, Exodus 20:13). In the first place, the Christian faith believes that humans are created in the image of God. As such, a serious crime against another person is also a crime against God. In the Old Testament, premeditated murder was sufficient reason for the death penalty (Numbers 35:31, 33). Moreover, in Genesis 9:6, it can be read that â€Å"whoever sheds the blood of man, by man shall his blood be shed†. St. Thomas Aquinas also published his thoughts regarding capital punishment. He said that â€Å"the civil rulers execute, justly and sinlessly, pestiferous men in order to protect the peace of the state† (Summa Contra Gentiles, III, 146). Furthermore, St. Thomas Aquinas talked about the need to impose death penalty on the crime doers. â€Å"The fact that the evil, as long as they live, can be corrected from their errors does not prohibit the fact that they may be justly executed, for the danger which threatens from their way of life is greater and more certain than the good which may be expected from their improvement. They also have at that critical point of death the opportunity to be converted to God through repentance. And if they are so stubborn that even at the point of death their heart does not draw back from evil, it is possible to make a highly probable judgment that they would never come away from evil to the right use of their powers† (St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles, Book III, 146). The sacrifice of Jesus Christ on the cross is at the centerpiece of Christianity. Without such sacrifice, there would be no Christian faith. Such sacrifice is also a form of capital punishment in the sense that he bore the sins of the whole world. Such sin therefore requires the death penalty and Christ willingly went to the Cross to satisfy the requirements of a just and loving God for the remission of sins. Although the Old Testament has a number of provisions for death penalty, the New Testament appears to emphasize the love of God. This has been seized by anti-capital punishment advocates in moving towards the abolition of capital punishment. John 8:7 (NIV) of the Bible, which reads, â€Å"But Jesus bent down and started to write on the ground with his finger. When they kept on questioning him, he straightened up and said to them; â€Å"If any one of you is without sin, let him be the first to throw a stone at her. † is being taken as a passage supporting the abolition of capital punishment. In this regard, the sixth commandment is also being preached in a lot of churches as a prohibition against capital punishment. Several Christians also point to the love and grace of God as reason why capital punishment should not be instituted. Following this line of argument, it means that criminals are being given the maximum time for the possibility of repentance and redemption. With God’s grace and love, even criminals may still get a chance to reform their ways. Christian groups have diverse opinions and individual Christians do have the choice for their own preference and view apart from the official stand of their churches. Historically, the Roman Catholic Church accepted capital punishment based on the theology and views of St. Thomas Aquinas. The reason behind this is the way in which death penalty can deter and prevent crime. It is not a means for revenge. However, during the time of Pope John Paul II, the Roman Catholic Church revised this position. This position was defined by Pope John Paul II through the encyclical he released entitled Evangelium Vitae. As a result of this, the Roman Catholic Church now believes that capital punishment is not the best way to deal with crimes. Rather, capital punishment should be avoided except in cases where it is the only means available to defend the society from the criminal or offender. Given the present situation of penal systems, such need for execution is virtually non-existent. According to the Catechism of the Roman Catholic Church, â€Å"Assuming that the guilty party's identity and responsibility have been fully determined, the traditional teaching of the Church does not exclude recourse to the death penalty, if this is the only possible way of effectively defending human lives against the unjust aggressor. If, however, nonlethal means are sufficient to defend and protect people's safety from the aggressor, authority will limit itself to such means, as these are more in keeping with the concrete conditions of the common good and are more in conformity to the dignity of the human person. Today, in fact, as a consequence of the possibilities which the state has for effectively preventing crime, by rendering one who has committed an offense incapable of doing harm – without definitely taking away from him the possibility of redeeming himself – the cases in which the execution of the offender is an absolute necessity are very rare, if not practically nonexistent† (Catechism of the Catholic Church, no. 2267). Given this position, the Roman Catholic Church has affirmed the sanctity of life through this position. Such position aims to affirm the dignity and rights of a person even if he has committed some crimes. The position promoted and adopted by the Roman Catholic Church through Pope John Paul II is a revolutionary one and it is in keeping with the prevailing views in the world today regarding the abolition of death penalty. Depending on the stand of the churches, more liberal groups tend to be abolitionist, meaning they want to abolish death penalty. The more conservative denominations of Christianity tend to support the imposition of death penalty. Protestant Christian Churches also have their official stand regarding capital punishment. The Anglican and Episcopalian churches has opted a policy that condemns death penalty in 1988 through the Lambeth Conference of Anglican and Episcopal bishops. The United Methodist Church, as well as other Methodist churches all over the world has taken the position against capital punishment. The church says that it cannot support capital punishment on the basis of social vengeance and retribution. More importantly, capital punishment tends to be imposed more frequently to marginalized sectors of the society such as the uneducated, ethnic and racial minorities, the poor, and the disenfranchised. The General Conference of the United Methodist Church, which meets once in every four years, asked its bishops to oppose capital punishment and advocate for governments to impose a moratorium on the implementation of death penalty (United Methodist Church website, 2007). The Lutheran Church in America also opposes the death penalty. Such decision was made in 1991 through a social policy statement that the church released. The policy stated that vengeance is the main reason for the imposition of capital punishment. Furthermore, the Church believes that repentance, forgiveness, and redemption are necessary for true healing to be accomplished (ELCA, 2007). With this policy, the Lutheran Church joins the throng of Christian churches that support the abolition of death penalty. Given these stands of various churches, most denominations appear to support the abolitionist position. The interpretation of these churches of the Christian faith is one in which God’s love and mercy takes precedence over the imposition of punishment on the erring party. There are still churches within the Lutheran tradition that supports death penalty. They cite the stand of Martin Luther regarding death penalty and the way that this represents the justice of God. This also means that churches are now more and more in sync with the ideas and movements of other cause-oriented groups in the society. As time moves on, the views of Christian churches are also changing. There is almost a universal consensus regarding the importance of abolishing death penalty. For Christians, however, there are important issues at stake. This also concerns the emphasis on God’s justice, or God’s love. This also has an implication on the advocacies and ministries of Christian Churches. Traditionally, Christianity has emphasized the justice and the holiness of God and the way in which humans fall short of this. Moreover, justice means equality for all and that people get what they deserve. Given this framework of understanding, capital punishment is necessary. In recent years, however, there has been an emphasis on God’s love and grace. This means that the churches have redefined their role to dispense grace and promote forgiveness, healing, and reconciliation. This does not sit well, however, for the advocates of capital punishment. Because the major denominations such as the Roman Catholic Church, the United Methodist Church, and the Lutheran church have worldwide presence, this means that the abolitionist perspective has a better chance to be propagated all over the world. In this regard, the Christian church is working hand in hand with the United Nations, Amnesty International, and other human rights groups in promoting the dignity of humans. If the advocacy of rights groups and the churches succeed, this means that more and more countries might forego the capital punishment in the coming years. The effects of this on the incidence of crime and the social and governance policy of governments all over the world remain to be seen.